Robert Mills Gagne (August 21, 1916– April 28, 2002) was an American educational psychologist whose theory of instruction has provided a great number of valuable ideas to instructional designers, trainers, and teachers. It is really useful to everyone for their study. Gagne (1985) described the nature of an instructional theory as an attempt to relate the external Events of Instruction to the outcomes of learning by showing how these events lead to appropriate support or enhancement of internal learning processes. Gagne was, of course, not the first theorist to suggest that all learning is not alike, that learning might be analyzed into different types of learning. Various psychologist including carr, Melton, Tolman, had given some contribution in categorizing the types of learning however Gagne very strongly categorized the types of learning in hierarchical order. His types of learning were not his own creation. He began by reviewing learning theory and research, such as Watson, Thorndike, Tolman, Pavlov,kindler, Köhler, etc in determining the types of learning. Pavlov described about singal learning, thorndike described about stimulus response learning, skinner about chaining, underwood about verbal association, postman about multiple discrimination, kindler about concept learning, he himself defined about principle learning, katona about problem solving. So we can say that he was the learning psychologist who collected the important idea for learning. So his theory was no more his own creation however a important step in development of learning psychology. He described all types but the first, signal learning (classical conditioning), as having prerequisite relationships with one another. Gagne carefully referenced researchers that had examined these eight types of learning: They are as follows:
1) Signal Learning 2) Stimulus-Response Learning 3) Chaining 4) Verbal Association 5) Multiple Discrimination 6) Concept Learning 7) Principle Learning 8) Problem Solving
As previously explained Gagne's theory of instruction is commonly broken into three areas. The first of these areas that I will discuss is the taxonomy of learning outcomes. Gagne's taxonomy of learning outcomes is somewhat similar to Bloom's taxonomies of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor outcomes (some of these taxonomies were proposed by Bloom, but actually completed by others). Both Bloom and Gagne believed that it was important to break down humans' learned capabilities into categories or domains. Gagne's taxonomy consists of five categories of learning outcomes - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills. Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) explain that each of the categories leads to a different class of human performance.
To tie Gagne's theory of instruction together, he formulated nine events of instruction. Which are 1) Gain attention 2) inform learning objective 3) stimulate recall of prior learning) 4) present the content 5) provide learning guidance 6) Elicit performance 7) provide feedback 8) Asses performance 9)Enhance performance and transfer to the job. When followed, these events are intended to promote the transfer of knowledge or information from perception through the stages of memory. Gagne bases his events of instruction on the cognitive information processing learning theory.
The way Gagne's theory is put into practice is as follows. First of all, the instructor determines the objectives of the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized into one of the five domains of learning outcomes. Each of the objectives must be stated in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e. states, discriminates, classifies, etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses the conditions of learning for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions necessary for learning. And finally, the events of instruction necessary to promote the internal process of learning are chosen and put into the lesson plan. The events in essence become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of instruction. Similarly the Gagne has identified the different phases of learning. They are 1) Apprehending phase 2) The acquisition phase 3) The storage phase 4) Retrieval phase. Robert Gagne in his book ‘On the conditions of Learning’, has given a taxonomy of learning types (Gagne, 1970 Chap.4). That he has arranged hierarchically. Robert Gagne suggests a hierarchical list of eight category of learning. The list is hierarchical in sense that it proceeds from very simple conditioning types of learning up to complex learning such as that involves in problem solving learning. Additionally the list is also hierarchical in that sense that lower level of learning is prerequisites of higher level of learning.
1) Signal learning: This is a type of associative learning that has been initially studied by Pavlov who has called it conditioned reflex. A subject that responds in a certain way (R) to a stimulus S1 is given two stimuli (S1 and S2) simultaneously. After sufficient number of repetitions he learns to give the response (R) to S2 even in the absence of S1. Much of the learning that we do without giving conscious thought is of this type. Much of the initial learning of early childhood is signal learning. As the dinner bell was the signal for the Pavlov's dog. So he responds to the signal as he would to the event. i.e. instead of salivating when dinner arrives the dog did so at the signal. It is characteristics of these types of learning that stimulus and response must be closely associated in time.
2) Stimulus-response learning: This is another type of associative learning that has been called trial and error learning by Thorndike. Skinner has used the term operant learning for it. It involves some goal or objective that the subject attempts to achieve. The process is essentially a successive approximation process. The initial efforts are almost random. The subject modifies his approach in every attempt. Each successful attempt is remembered while failed attempts are forgotten. The success rate improves with more attempts. A good example is a child learning to walk. Initially he falls down often. But with more attempts he is able to master the skill. It is different from signal learning but signal learning is the base of this learning so we say there is hierarchical dependency in lower types of learning of higher types of learning. The condition of stimulus response is that the learning is typically gradual. i) The repetition of association of stimulus and response is usually necessary. ii) The response become more precise as the repetition takes place.(This is what skinner called shaping) iii) There is reward or reinforcement for exhibiting the required response and there is no reward when the behavior is incorrect. It is second types of learning according as Gagne.
3) Chaining: Chaining is the process of establishing a sequential connection of a set of stimulus-response pairs for the purpose of attaining a particular goal. For example, the opening of a lock involves a number of simpler steps connected in a sequence (locate the key-hole -insert the key - turn the key clockwise - watch for lever unlocking - take off the lock). Successful chaining requires prior learning of each component response. Algorithms are generally such chaining sequences. The condition for the chaining is i) the individual's link must be established first. ii) Again time is the factor, the event in the chain must occur close together in time.
4) Verbal Association: Human beings have the ability to encode and express knowledge through sound patterns. Verbal association here refers to the most elementary kind of verbal behavior - learning of verbal associations (object « name) and verbal sequences (chains of verbal associations). Gagne says verbal association will be classified as only the sub verity of chaining but this chain should be verbal. Verbal association has some unique characteristics. Condition for verbal association: i) each link must be established previously the link in the individuals mind to make the association. ii) There should be response differentiation.
5) Multiple Discrimination Learning: Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between two or more stimulus objects or events. There are two different kinds of capabilities involved. The first is where the learner is able to make different responses to different members of a collection of stimulus events and objects. The second type involves the capability of the learner to respond in a single way to a collection of stimuli belonging to a single set. (This involves recognition of the defining rule for the set and responding accordingly. Condition for multiple discriminations are i) Stimulus/Response must already be established. ii) Interference from conflicting stimulus must be reduced in to minimum form. That is distinction must be emphasized.
6) Concept learning: Concept learning involves discrimination and classification of objects. We will distinguish between two types of concept learning: concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts are those that are formed through direct observation. For example, consider the edge of a table, the edge of a razor blade and the edge of a cliff. It is possible to formulate a rule that defines an edge. But the concept of edge is formed more easily through direct observation of several examples. A learner can respond to a set of stimulus objects in two ways – one by distinguishing among them and the other by putting them into a class and responding to any instance of that class in the same way. Both these types are examples of concept learning. The significance of concept learning is that it frees the learner from the control by specific stimuli. Condition for concept learning is i) The variety of stimulus must be presented so that conceptual property common to all can be discriminated. ii) The stimulus response must be established.
7) Principle (or rule) learning: In a formal sense rule is a chain of two or more concept. If the two angles in a triangle are equal then the side opposite to the angels is also equal. This may be distinguish from a simple verbal fact to be memorized its that if the rule is correctly learned than the learner will be able to apply it in all relevant situation. Some concepts are not concrete. They are based on rules that involve other concepts. So they have to be learnt through definition. Definitions are statements that express rules for classifying, i.e. rules that are applicable to any instance of a particular class. Definitions are used for objects as well as for relations. A salient feature of principle learning is that the learner cannot acquire the concept through memorizing its statements verbatim unless he knows the referential meanings of the component concepts. For example, 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O is meaningless unless you understand what the symbols H2, O2, and H2O represent and are familiar with the mole concept. The concept formation process is cumulative. It weaves the different objects into a semantic web. A simple chaining should be taken place as the condition of rule learning.
8) Problem solving: Problem solving, here, refers to something more than classroom mathematical drills. Also referred to as heuristics purpose. The process of problem solving is one in which the learner discovers a combination of previously learnt rules that can be applied to achieve a solution for a novel situation. The following sequence of events is typically involved in problem solving. (1) Presentation of the problem, (2) definition of the problem, (3) formulation of hypothesis, (4) verification of hypothesis. The learning outcome of problem solving is a higher order rule that becomes a part of the student’s repertory. According to Gagne, cognition and concept formation is a multi-layered phenomenon, each layer consisting of a particular learning type. Signal learning, Stimulus-response learning, Chaining, Verbal Association and Multiple Discrimination Learning are all pre requisites for the formation of concepts and the ability to solve problems. The process of concept formation involves all these eight processes. A very important point here is that if the learning has not been sufficiently accomplished at any level, then there are perceptible deterioration at all higher levels. The condition for problem solving is i) The learner must be able to identify the essential features of response that will be the solution. ii) Relevant rules should be used and recalled. iii) The recalled rules are combined so that a new rule emerges. In this way R.M Gagne has identified his each learning with hierarchical dependency on lower level of learning of higher level of learning.
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